The Prayer Book: Introduction, Vestments & Service Books

Introduction — Singing — Gradual — Alleluia — Tract — Cantus responsorius — Cantus tractus — Cantus directaneus — Cantus antiphonalis — Anthem — Tropes — Sequences — Intoning.

Liturgical worship has been defined as worship involving material offering, or sacrifice, expressed in audible words, accompanied by external and visible actions, as distinguished from inaudible, invisible, and non-material worship of the heart.

The Divine care for ritual did not cease with the Levitical age, nor was all ritual intended to be abolished at the commencement of Christianity; Catholic Christendom has ever applied a literal meaning to those passages in the New Testament in which some ordinance has been enjoined or referred to, but as "they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit and in truth", so the use of a rite or ordinance demands a spiritual grasp of the purpose which it is intended to effectuate.

Foremost amongst these rites was that of singing, the art of which became gradually more and more developed in the West. It is therefore expedient to take into consideration the different methods which were adopted.

Singing & Chant Forms

From the earliest times it has been the custom to alternate the reading of the Scriptures with the singing of a psalm or hymn.

Originally one portion of Scripture was taken from the Old Testament, one from the Epistles, and one from the Gospels. But about 400–500 the prophetic lection was dropped, except on Ember days, or during Lent; and the psalm which had followed was added to that which followed the Epistle.

At this juncture we have therefore both the Gradual (so called because it was sung at the gradus or ambo where the lection was read) followed by the Alleluia, or in Lent the Tract, between the Epistle and the Gospel.

The Gradual was a Cantus responsorius sung in a monotone, with slight inflection, with a refrain at short intervals, sung by the choir and congregation, which in Rome became about 500–600 extremely florid. The Tract was a Cantus tractus, an unbroken solo and generally very elaborate.

The other forms of singing were known as Cantus directaneus, a simple form of singing in chorus with little more than a monotone, and the Cantus antiphonalis. The 'antiphonal' was a method of choir answering choir, and the music was not a monotone, but a style of free melody.

St. Germanus of Paris attributed antiphonal singing to the practice in King Solomon's temple and responsorial chanting to Miriam.

According to Socrates, the historian, 400–500, the antiphonal method was attributed to St. Ignatius, 110, who saw a vision of angels praising the Holy Trinity in antiphonal hymns, and left the fashion of his vision as a custom to the church at Antioch.

According to Theodoret, it arose at the time of Leontius, Bishop of Antioch, 344–357, owing to Flavian and Diodorus, two ascetics, who both afterwards became bishops, originating the chanting of the psalms by two choirs at night in the sanctuaries of the martyrs.

In the form adopted at Rome, whole psalms were sometimes sung alternately. Before beginning the psalm itself there was a solo containing musical phrases of the melody accompanied by words taken from the psalms; this was called the 'antienne' or 'anthem', which was also repeated at the end of the psalm.

The antiphon, according to the Liber Pontificalis, was introduced into Rome in the time of Pope Celestine, 422–432.

There is no doubt that the school of cantors became strongly developed at Rome, as the chants which are known as Gregorian are still in use.

In 595 the Council at Rome decided that the Gradual should be sung by a 'cantor' in place of the deacon.

This Roman form of chanting was later found of great assistance in establishing the Roman Use in the place of the Gallican Use throughout the West.

Emphasis is laid upon the singing of St. Augustine's mission on their entrance into Canterbury in 597. So we find Benet, Bishop of Jarrow and Wearmouth, persuading Abbot John, Superior of one of the monasteries of the Vatican and archcantor of the Roman Church, to accompany him back to England in 679.

Likewise, St. Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, 732–766, a contemporary of St. Boniface, after his return from Rome adopted the Roman Liturgy, and about the same time Pope Paul sent in 760 to King Pepin an Antiphonary and Responsorial. Remedius, Bishop of Lyons, a son of Charles Martel, in the same year, obtained leave from the Pope to take back with him the sub-director (secundus) of the Schola Cantorum in order to introduce the Roman 'modulations of psalmody'.

Before leaving this subject, mention must be made of 'Tropes,' which were interpolations of more recent musical additions to the chants; these, however, soon dropped out, except the 'Sequences' which were additions to the Alleluia.

Intoning

In our present Prayer Book the rubrics are not always clear about the use of the various terms, say, read, or sing.

Normally, to say means to intone, but not necessarily, and where the rubric has been changed from 'loud' to 'audible' as it was in 1662, in the rubric before the first Lord's Prayer in the Morning Prayer, it certainly was not intended to do so.

Further, in the rubric before the Venite, all three expressions are used indifferently, the reason being that they are meant to apply to services either with or without a choir.

The practice of intoning is very ancient, and arose out of the difficulty of the officiating minister to make himself heard by a large assembly. The flections of the voice served for the scansion of the text, and thus gave more relief to the intonation.

It was for the same reason that the custom arose of pronouncing in a low voice what was originally intended to be heard by all, though these formularies always ended in an 'Ecphony' or raised inflection of the voice for the congregation to respond with the Amen. Thus the practice of saying the 'Secreta' before the Preface and the Canon of the Mass in a low tone, as distinguished from the high note on which the Preface was sung later, rendered the former inaudible. But this was not officially approved of, for it is laid down in the sixth Canon of the Council of Oxford, 1222: "Verba vero Canonis presertim in consecratione Corporis Christi plene et integre proferuntur".

Thus, though no doubt introducing a change of practice, the directions as to 'audible', and 'loud voice' contained in all our Prayer Books from 1549 to 1662 did not, in fact, introduce an innovation but restored the old order.

Dalmatic — Planeta — Pallium — Rochet — Albe — Surplice — Chasuble — Maniple — Dominical — Stole — Crozier — Ring — Mitre — Papal tiara — Girdle — Incense — Cope — Tunicles.

There is no doubt that Liturgical Vestments are very similar to the garments usually worn in Rome during the Empire: and we learn from a letter of Pope Celestine, 422, to the Bishops of Provence, that he condemned the use of any special ecclesiastical costume as unnecessary.

The Liber Pontificalis, written about 600, attributes the wearing of the dalmatic as an ecclesiastical garment to Pope Silvester, 314–335, at any rate its use as an ordinary article of clothing had gone out of fashion before 500.

St. Germain of Paris alleges that the 'chasuble', and Rabanus Maurus, 800–900, asserts that vestments in general, were of Jewish origin: it may be that the fancied resemblance of the Roman garments to the Levitical Vestments was one of the reasons why they were retained in modified forms as liturgical robes.

At Rome, from 400 to 500, the ordinary garments were an under-tunic with or without sleeves, and a paenula or planeta, which was a cloak without sleeves or any opening in front.

In addition, officials wore a scarf or pallium as a badge of office. The tunic has now become the canon's or bishop's rochet, or in another modification the 'albe' or 'surplice', and the planeta has become the 'chasuble', derived from casula, a hut or shelter from the rain. At the same period the magistrates, when performing their duties, continued to use the old Roman 'toga'; from this the 'cope' is derived through the late Latin word copa, denoting a garment similar to the toga.

The Several Vestments

The dalmatic was worn between the tunic and the planeta, and was, in fact, a second tunic with large sleeves.

The 'mappula' or 'maniple', a sort of napkin worn over the arm, was also used on ceremonial occasions, whenever some object was to be received or presented, when it was laid across the hands; it was not in general use as a liturgical garment at Rome until after 1100. Comparison may be made between this and the dominical used by women in the Gallic Use (p. 57).

The 'stole' or 'orarium' was originally a sudarium (handkerchief or neckcloth), and was not used at Rome as a distinguishing mark until after 1100; before that it was used ceremonially by even the minor orders, the chief difference lying in the fact that the minor orders wore it under the albe or surplice.

Subsequently, the custom was introduced which had obtained everywhere in the West, by which the deacons wore it across the left shoulder, but over the surplice and under the dalmatic or chasuble; the priests or bishops wore it round the neck, and crossed in front, but the former under the chasuble and the latter over it (cf. Councils of Braga 561 and 675, and of Toledo 633).

The crozier and ring appear to have been in use by Bishops everywhere, except in Rome where they did not come into use until about 1000.

The pallium was a long band of white woollen stuff draped over the shoulders, one end in front and the other behind, worn something like a modification of the Roman toga. It was originally a mark of Imperial honour, and was not granted by the Pope, without the Imperial sanction, to those who were not subjects of the Empire.

Gradually it acquired a symbolic significance as representing the mantle of St. Peter, and it was deposited for a night in St. Peter's above the tomb of the Apostle, before being sent to the Bishop. It was not given to every Bishop, as in the East, but only to those of certain places.

It is worn by the Pope in place of a stole.

The amice was probably introduced about 600, when vestments became more ornamented, and served as a protection round the neck.

The mitre was not adopted as an episcopal head-dress until after 900; it is only an evolution of the common hood or cowl.

The Papal tiara is based on the Phrygian cap alleged to have been given by the Emperor Constantine to Pope Silvester after the latter had refused the Imperial Crown. The Crown was probably added after 800, as it is not mentioned before; Pope Boniface VIII., 1294–1303, is the first Pope who is represented with the second crown, and the third was added during the time that the Popes were at Avignon, 1309–78.

Signification of the Vestments

Such, then, being the source from which these vestments were derived, it may be of advantage here to set forth the signification which is attached to their Liturgical Use. As the Mass represents Christ's Passion, so the vestments represent His garments. Thus:

• The Amice represents the cloth with which the Jews muffled Our Lord's Face when they bade Him prophesy who it was that struck Him.
• The Albe represents that with which Our Lord was invested by Herod.
• The Maniple represents the cords with which Our Lord was bound.
• The Chasuble represents the purple garment with which He was clothed as a mock King.

Likewise these Vestments denote certain virtues:

• The Amice denotes 'Divine Hope'.
• The Albe denotes 'Innocence of Life'.
• The Girdle denotes 'Purity and Chastity'.
• The Maniple denotes 'Patience in suffering'.
• The Stole denotes the 'Sweet Yoke of Christ', presaging happy Immortality. (In the Greek Church it denotes the Incarnation.)
• The Chasuble denotes 'Charity'.
• Incense denotes the 'Advent of the Holy Spirit'.

At Rome portable censers do not appear to have been used except in processions before 800.

The Ornaments Rubric

In the Prayer Book of 1549 the surplice, albe, tunicles, vestments, and copes are directed to be used, but in the Prayer Book of 1552 these were reduced to a surplice for a Priest or Deacon and a rochet for an Archbishop or Bishop.

But in the Elizabethan Prayer Book of 1559 the rubric was altered to:

"Such ornaments of the Church and the Ministers thereof shall be retained and be in use as were in the Church of England by authority of Parliament in the second year of the reign of King Edward VI. until other order shall be therein taken by the authority of the Queen's Majesty with the advice of her Commissioners appointed and authorized under the Great Seal of England for causes ecclesiastical or of the Metropolitan of this realm," and sec. 13: "that further rites or ceremonies may be ordained and published by the same authority."

Again in the Prayer Book of 1662 the rubric is: "Such ornaments of the Church and the Ministers thereof shall be retained and be in use as were in the Church of England by the authority of Parliament in the second year of the reign of Edward VI."

As has been shown in Chapter XXV. there has been divergence of opinion as to the construction of the Ornaments Rubric in the Prayer Book of 1662, and though the legal decisions have reduced the scope of it by bringing into force the Advertisements issued by Archbishop Parker in 1566, in which only cope, surplice, scarf, and hood are mentioned, yet the Upper House of Convocation, in view of further historical research, has reported that the true effect of this rubric is to restore the vestments mentioned in the First Prayer Book of Edward VI.

In the alternative forms contained in the Permissive Measure, the rubric distinctly directs that in celebrating the Holy Communion the Priest shall wear either a surplice with stole or with scarf and hood or a white albe, plain with a vestment or cope.

Sacramentary — Ordines — Pontifical — Rolls — Epistle Book — Gospel Book — Gradual — Troper — Psalter — Legend — Antiphonal — Collectar — Ordinal — Consuetudinary — Missal — Breviary — Manual — Book of Common Prayer — Ordinal — Primer.

Service Books were not originally comprehensive, but in so far as each one who took part in the service was concerned, they were provided with a separate book containing their part alone.

So we have the Liber Sacramentorum or Sacramentary, which was for the special use of the priest or officiating bishop;

Ordines which were descriptions of the rites and ceremonies, which were sometimes bound up with the Liber Sacramentorum;

Pontifical for special rites appertaining to a Bishop, e.g. Consecration;

Rolls for special ceremonies, e.g. Blessing of Fonts, Baptism, and Praeconium Pascale (Easter Candle);

Epistle Book for Sub-Deacon;

Gospel Book for Deacon;

Gradual or Antiphonorium Missae or Cantatorium for the Choir;

Troper containing the Sequences;

Also for Divine Service:

• The Psalter containing psalms and canticles;
• The Legend containing Scriptures, Homilies, and Lives of the Saints;
• The Antiphonal containing the musical parts of the service, including hymns; and
• The Collectar — short texts and collects.

The Ordinal¹ gave the opening words of the component parts of the service, and general directions as to variations of the Kalendar later included in the 'Pie', or perpetual Kalendar.

¹ Ordinal, later, is used for the rites and ceremonies of Ordinations.

The Consuetudinary was the same as the ordo, but with more detail. In course of time, with the increase of Low Mass celebrated by one priest alone with a server, the Sacramentary, Epistle, Gospel, Gradual, and Troper were combined in the 'Missal'.

The Psalter, Legend, Antiphonal, Collectar were combined in the Breviary.

The occasional services of the priest were collected in the 'Manual' and those of the Bishop in the 'Pontifical', which often included the priestly services.

In 1549 and since, in lieu of all these various books, one Book of Common Prayer has been introduced, but it must be noted that the Pontifical was not included, so that the Bishops still have a free hand as to those rites and ceremonies which are not included in the Book.

The Primer or Lay Folks' Prayer Book

In addition there was the private Devotional Book known as the Horae or Primer. Originally it consisted of the Psalter, Canticles, Creeds, Lord's Prayer, Gloria in Excelsis, together with devotions, e.g. Votiva Laus in veneracione Sanctae Mariae Virginis, Horae de Trinitate, Horae de Sancto Spiritu, Horae de Beata Virgine Maria, Horae in honore sanctae crucis, and the Services of the Dead to which were prefixed the A.B.C., Pater Noster, Ave Maria and devotions in English.

The devotions generally included the XV Oes of St. Bridget on the Passion: also the Litany and Suffrages. (Versicles and Responds.)

Such was often called the "Prymer or Lay Folks' Prayer Book".

Amongst the earliest of these works in the vernacular, mention must be made of the Lay Folks' Mass Book, which is thought to have been written about 1150 by one Dan Jeremy, Archdeacon of Cleveland and also a Canon of Rouen. It was probably written in Norman French: the translation which has come down to us is in north-country English, and must have been made about 1293. This date is fixed by the fact of the omission of the Pope's name, and there was no Pope between 4th April 1292 and 5th July 1294. It is in English verse and contains an accurate account of the 'Use' at Rouen, and thus forms a most interesting link between the liturgy of the Anglo-Saxons and that of Sarum, some two hundred years later. It contains advice as to when and for what to pray, during Mass, and also explanations as to when to join in the responses.

As to the later Primers, there were various Primers of Sarum printed soon after Luther, viz. in 1527, 1531, 1532, 1533, 1534; the last at Paris has a strong attack on Rome.

But the best known are Marshall's Primers printed in 1534 and 1535; his name is William, and he was not the Archdeacon of Nottingham who died in 1549, as has sometimes been declared.

Amongst other things, 'it contains Savonarola's exposition of the 51st Psalm, written in 1498, together with the Dialogue of Father and Son, a sort of Catechism, which was prohibited in 1526, and the Psalms which were taken from Bucer's Latin translation.

The next was Hilsey's Primer printed in 1539; he had been a Dominican Friar of Bristol and subsequently became Bishop of Rochester, but he died before the book was published.

Finally Cranmer produced the King's Primer in 1545–1546, which was ordered to supersede all previous Primers, a comparison of their general contents being as follows:

Thus it will be seen that the purely educational part such as the A.B.C. had latterly been dropped. The Kalendar in Hilsey is of interest owing to the fact that in the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., where the Epistle or Gospel varies from Sarum, Cranmer adopted the alternative from this source. Later editions of Marshall include amongst the saints 'Erasmus', who died at Rotterdam in 1536; moreover, the first edition is noted for the appropriate Scriptural quotations printed in the column of saints irrespective of the names.

Further, Edward VI.'s first Primer in 1547 was a republication of the 'King's Primer', and likewise the one in 1549, only the Litany was amended by the omission of the invocations to the Virgin Mary, to the Angels, and to the Patriarchs; and the 'Ave Maria' was also omitted in 1551.

But the Primer of 1553 was quite different, prayers were taken from the Book of Common Prayer with a selection of psalms and short lessons from the Scripture, thus forming a course for each week in the year. The Catechism and Graces and a 'preparation for prayer' were placed at the beginning of the book, and a collection of prayers for special occasions was added at the end.

It was reproduced in Elizabeth's reign, and formed the basis of the Primers which appeared from time to time throughout the next three centuries.